Hispanic and Latino Americans Essay Example for Free

Hispanic and Latino Americans Essay The sonnet â€Å"Legal Alien† by Pat Mora is in the open sonnet structure, it has no verses. It has a couple of words that rhyme which are â€Å"English† (5) and â€Å"Spanish† (6) and furthermore with â€Å"Mexicans† (14) and afterward with â€Å"Americans† (15). The sonnet additionally has mood, it is a low consistent beat. It is a clear sonnet about how life is for an individual with a similar race/ethnicity as others and simultaneously, not quite the same as others. The sonnet â€Å"Legal Alien† is about a lady of Mexican guardians, who is brought up in America. An American resident built up by law, and yet this individual feels like a foreigner on account of how a few people treat her. She is conversant in both, English and in Spanish. Feels American since she is, and yet she doesn’t. She is taken a gander at by Americans (Anglos) as second rate, and took a gander at by Mexicans like she doesn’t have a place. They cause her to feel like she isn't one of them, similar to she doesn’t fit anyplace. â€Å"An American to Mexicans a Mexican to Americans a convenient token sliding to and fro between the edges of both worlds† (14-18). †What this implies is that she has an inclination that she could be from the two spots and simultaneously from not one or the other, yet on the outskirt of each. Cheerful, dismal, confounded, lost and yet she attempts to cover every one of her emotions and what she is thinking â€Å"by concealing the discomfort† (20) is that she needs to smile and bear the way that she is being denounced for having two nationalities. In the wake of perusing this sonnet and over I can say that I have felt what the speaker makes reference to in the sonnet, I have been from her point of view. Truly it’s difficult to accept yet looking at the situation objectively we are for the most part unique and simultaneously we are no different. For certain individuals it is difficult to acknowledge individuals of various nationality, however the main thing we can do is to proceed onward. I am Mexican American, likewise bilingual, with two distinct societies, conceived in America with Mexican guardians. I think this sonnet â€Å"Legal Alien† is a little about bigotry which is all over and it has been around for quite a while. I have felt looks from Mexicans and Americans, and to be straightforward it doesn’t feel that great. However, I believe that the main thing we can do is to simply release it and live at the fullest and acknowledge everybody as they seem to be. Race, shading, religion, or even language ought not make any difference. At long last, and underneath, all things considered, we are no different.

Unions and labor relations Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Associations and work relations - Research Paper Example New business ideas, for example, re-appropriating and offshoring helped associations to work in a multicultural situation. At the end of the day, managers began to manage a substantially more different workforce in view of globalization. The systems expected to deal with an assorted workforce are totally unique structure the methodologies expected to deal with a workforce of single culture. Various representatives may have various necessities, particularly when they working in a multicultural situation. For instance, Muslim representatives consistently prefer to have a break for supplication during the mid-early afternoon of each Friday. Same way Christian representatives consistently prefer to have off on each sundays. In the event that the businesses keep them from taking such extravagances, they will create disappointment and their reliability towards the administration may descend. The necessities of the workers are changing quickly as a result of the progressions in expectations for everyday comforts and the new difficulties coming before them as the time goes on. For instance, everyday costs are developing step by step and it is hard for a representative to discover his occupation if the business isn't prepared to build his compensation. Same way, remaining tasks at hand are expanding step by step and because of that representatives are not getting enough time for relaxation exercises. Work-life adjusting is a significant part of work relations. In the event that the workers battle to discover sufficient opportunity to go through with their family members and companions, their psychological well-being could be harmed. Regardless of whether the representatives get more significant compensations for their additional outstanding burdens, they may not be fulfilled on the off chance that they neglect to get time to go through with their darling ones. Physical needs just as mental needs of the workers are significant in keeping up better work relations by the b usinesses. â€Å"American worker's organizations, taken... Associations and work relations Worker's guilds are associations to ensure the interests of the common laborers. At the end of the day worker's organizations consistently work for the improvement of the entire representatives instead of the advancement of any individual workers. In any case, in some specific circumstances worker's guilds may work for the individual interests too. For instance, if a representative was terminated pointlessly by the business, worker's organizations may seek the salvage of that worker. â€Å"The work connection process incorporates acknowledgment of the real right and duties of association and management†. Better Employee-manager relations or work relations is significant for the smooth working of an association In a pained association, representatives may not convey their bests and because of that the profitability and the proficiency of the association may descend. This paper investigations the impact of changes in representative relations techniques, strategies, and practices on hierarchical execution and the significance of worker's organizations in America at present. Worker's guilds are associations which contend for the privileges of the laborers and better work relations from the businesses. Current work environments comprise of very various workforce and the requirements of the assorted representatives could be unique. Businesses should assist workers with meeting their physical just as mental needs so as to keep up better work relations. Worker's organizations are losing grounds in America at present in light of the better treatment American representatives get from their managers.

What You Need to Know Before Writing a Speech

What You Need to Know Before Writing a SpeechWriting a speech is like painting a picture, or composing music. It requires a lot of patience and practice, but once you have mastered it, you can deliver an inspiring speech in public to impress people, to win the hearts of your audience, or to simply win a debate.Giving a speech is not an easy task, especially if you are a beginner. There are certain things you should remember before putting together a speech. These things are mentioned below.Your speech should be ready for the audience. You should know how many to expect from them. This will help you when you are writing your speech. Once you know the number of people to expect, you can easily plan your speech. If you can not do it, prepare it beforehand so that you can immediately get the venue or the place to hold the speech.When you are planning the speech, decide the format and the way of speaking for the audience. To make the speech appealing to the audience, you can write down th e points you want to emphasize in your speech. Also, choose the way of saying the points. Choose something that is appropriate to the subject matter and to the person talking. It can be funny, inspiring, pragmatic, or whatever.Take note of the style of writing. The style of writing a speech can be different from one person to another. It can vary in terms of tone, diction, and structure. You can choose to write a speech in a casual or formal style. Or, you can even choose a well-known style of writing a speech and make it your own style.One of the most important things you need to learn to write a speech is the use of strong verbs and adjectives. Use the best tools to express yourself. Be sincere and write with the greatest intentions, but use strong and precise words. Remember that everyone has a different level of speech skills. You must choose the appropriate words to reach your audience.One of the most interesting aspects of writing a speech is to present the facts, whereas in a written text, there is no one to talk about the facts. You have to make a point through a speech. You should make an interesting story in a short period of time, if you are a beginner.Be sincere in every line of your speech. Remember, a speech can be short and elegant, or long and powerful. But always, always be sincere, as that will contribute a lot to the success of your speech.

Otto Environmental Systems North America, Inc. - 1201 Words

Company Background Otto Environmental Systems North America, Inc. is a plastic manufacturer of waste and recycling containers we are tier one supplier for some parts to GM and Electrolux. Our mission is to provide innovative products created for today’s collection needs and customized services developed with technology and experience. Problem Current Situation Inventory is the plaque in my organization; as we continue to follow the production practices as was being done in the past. The fundamental cause of such trend is based on the fact that all the machine/equipment and also the available manpower have to be kept busy irrespective of actual requirements. Almost all the managers in the organization have the wrong notion that large batch sizes reduce the element of setup time that is a reduction in throughput time. In fact, the results achieved go contrary to expectations. One of the important reasons is a wide variety of products, varied demand for each category including rationalization of production numbers by the planning department to match with the sales requirements. e.g. If we have an order for 400 95 gallon carts then the planning department plans for 410 generating overproduction. Besides the overruns, the demand we are placing on our machines to be busy without solid orders from customers by generating genetic products. Wasteful Impact to the Organization Products overruns hurt the organization on all levels, some may be visible others may not, the core effectShow MoreRelatedOtto Environmental Systems North America, Inc.1109 Words   |  5 PagesIntroduction Company Background Otto Environmental Systems North America, Inc. is a plastic manufacturer of waste and recycling containers, we are tier one supplier for GM and Electrolux. Our mission is to provide innovative products created for today’s collection needs and customized services developed with technology and experience. Problem Current Situation Inventory is the plaque in my organization; as we continue to follow the production practices of the past. The fundamental cause of suchRead MorePest Analysis3657 Words   |  15 PagesEconomy Transdisciplinarity Cognition www.ugb.ro/etc Vol. 15, Issue 1/2012 252-258 E-Commerce across United States of America: Amazon.com Andreea Nicoleta DONICI, PhD Student, Andreea MAHA, PhD Student, Alexandru Ioan Cuza University of Iasi, ROMANIA doniciandreea@gmail.com andreea.maha@gmail.com Ion IGNAT, Liviu-George MAHA Alexandru Ioan Cuza University of Iasi, ROMANIA ignation@uaic.ro mlg@uaic.ro Abstract: Amazon.com has been during the time one of the most important leading forceRead MoreStabilisation in Investment Contracts and Changes of Rules in Host Countries: Tools for Oil Gas Investors34943 Words   |  140 Pages...................................................76 CHAPTER 5: ENVIRONMENTAL, SAFETY AND HEALTH EXCEPTIONS ...........................76 5.1 MANAGING UNCERTAINTY ...........................................................................................................76 5.2 VULNERABILITY IN NON-FISCAL AREAS ......................................................................................77 5.3 EXAMPLES OF ENVIRONMENTAL RULE DEVELOPMENT ................................................Read MoreOne Significant Change That Has Occurred in the World Between 1900 and 2005. 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Alien and Sedition Acts Free Essay Example, 1250 words

The term federalist is used to refer â€Å"to those individuals who favoured the ratification of the US constitution† (Vile 268). The newly formed federalist party was led by Alexander Hamilton and was formed around the idea of supporting a strong national government such as would be competent to exercise its powers under the necessary and proper clauses established a national bank. The Democratic - Republican Party was largely founded by Thomas Jefferson and James Madison. This party was founded by the Virginia and Kentucky resolutions, which were against the Alien and Sedition Acts. The Democratic-Republicans had worries about the attempts to stifle the dissenting voices in the United States. Jefferson responded to these concerns by allowing the Alien and Sedition Acts to expire without renewal, and issued pardon to those who had been arrested during the time (Sabato and Ernst 301). This move not only solidified the ability for an opposition political party to be established in the United States without fear of prosecution, but Jefferson refused to grant the newly formed federalist interest to the national charter of the bank of the United State and opened another branch in New Orleans. We will write a custom essay sample on Alien and Sedition Acts or any topic specifically for you Only $17.96 $11.86/page

The New Millennium Response And The Internet - 2205 Words

The New Millennium Response to the Internet Ask your local teenager or â€Å"millennial† their favorite accessory, companion, or resource, and you will most likely receive a common answer: their cell phone. Confusing and recent changes in social interactions have led our devices with access to the internet into becoming an extra limb. Because of the reality-altering effect of social media and the ever-growing availability of information, a quick search or refresh leads to an abundance of answers and outlets through tabs on tabs of various websites. In response to the â€Å"digital age† enveloped by social media, â€Å"connectivity†, and open information, adolescents with easy internet access are attracted to the availability and secrecy the internet has†¦show more content†¦Once, the internet was a location for academic research. We now use the internet for any possible activity anyone could think of. One of these activities is the internet and social media acting as a communication medium for us ers. Users may use texting, messaging, emailing, and other forms of communication through wifi to speak to those who are not in their immediate company. As stated by the APA, â€Å"The internet facilitates communication with geographically distant family and friends, and makes it easier to communicate frequently with those near by† (Jackson et al.). Not only does the internet aid communication, but it is a permeable area of technology in which users can communicate with different people from all over the world. Children find themselves in a chat room where their opinions affect others, bringing thoughts to the screen and to others easily impacted demeanor. The author of The Psychology of the Internet states, â€Å"Children grow up in a web of intersecting environments that react with each other and that the children themselves can influence† (Wallace 229) Not only are children being swayed by others they may not know, but they are especially attracted to learning and collaborating with those who do not know them as well. Low expectation and anonymity contribute to evocation of interest. By retracting means of eye contact, expectations are lowered. As psychoanalyzed, a subjects

Globalized World

Question: Who in a globalized world should be responsible for the management of natural resources? Answer: Introduction A number of anti-globalization activists, journalists and scholars have claimed that the accelerated activity of global economy has placed major pressure on the natural resource. Majority of the concern is regarding the enhanced participation across emerging countries like India and China, in the global economy (Young 2010). This has placed major pressure on extraction of natural resources for meeting the subsequent increase of global demand for specific commodities. Indeed, it has been predicted by experts that supplying of non- renewable natural resources across the globe will end up reaching peak by the next 30 years and thereafter, start declining. All of these resources can be identified as crucial for the development and survival of humans as these resources have enhanced the possibility for existence of man on earth, while reproducing and contributing to the economy for meeting the need (Stiglitz 2007). However, management of natural resources is not the responsibility of one individual or authority. In majority of the areas across the globe, with the requirement of sustainably managing the natural resources, there is a need for involving various different stakeholders. Taking into consideration the different responsibilities of women and men is crucial for sustainably managing the natural resources and being successful in implementing programmes and policies of natural resource management (Griffith 2010). This awareness is significant for the promotion of effective conservation and sustainable development of natural resources while ensuring they are managed in an appropriate manner. In this context, the aim of this essay is to identify who is responsible for managing natural resources in the current era of globalization. Natural Resources Management and Its Significance Management of natural resources is referred to as sustainably utilizing major natural resources like wild fauna and flora, fisheries, forests, minerals, air, water and land. Altogether, these resources tend to be providing the services of eco-system that hold the major string of human life (Stiglitz 2007). Why is it important to manage natural resources? Natural resources have been identified as the fundamental support for human life in terms of both, public- good services and consumptive services. Processes of ecology have been maintaining the productivity of soil, recycling the nutrient, cleansing water and air, and the cycles of climate (Young 2010). Soils are extremely important components for agriculture, which further provides a basic building block in the lifestyle of each and every individual across the globe. Across the generic level, diversity identified in natural forms of life have been evidently supporting the programs of breeding significant for the protection and improvement of domesticated animals and cultivated plants. Further ahead, fauna and flora have been forming the base regarding traditional medicine while actively supporting the modern industry of pharmaceuticals (Toms 2010). The foundation of natural resources has started to come under increased pressure from both, higher level of economic activity and increa sed level of population. While there is major difficulty in forecasting how income per capita will end up changing in the coming 30 years, there is quite clarity in the fact that increasing population will be aspiring better standard of living. More often, this will be entailing an accelerated utilization of natural resource as both, recipients of waste and inputs to the economy (Rudra and Jensen 2011). However, the relationship between environmental stress and economic growth cannot be considered linear, as growth ends up generating resources for the better management of natural resources. It has been pointed by a number of critics that there are negative implications for exploitation of natural resource in the current environment of globalization (Griffith 2010). As a significant example, as nations have been growing in terms of richness to persuade comparative benefit, it has been argued by a number of scholars that the efforts of meeting increased demands of consumption in both, developed and developing nations lead towards exploiting the natural resources in the absence of any sustainability (Griffith 2010). A number of others have claimed that globalization tends to be encouraging government for favouring the demands of exporters that leads towards supporting the industry at the cost of sustainability. In partial terms, this is due to the aspect of public good in sustainability, there is a natural creation of incentives to shrink and collect action problems. Relationship between Globalization and Natural Resources Management Globalization can be referred to as the process in which decisions of business, processes of production and markets moves ahead in gradually exhibiting less national attributes and more international features. Globalization holds an implication of several underlying strategy reforms such as altered patterns of consumption, the private- public interface, and business organization (Rudra and Jensen 2011). Change of technology can also be considered significant when viewed from the dimension of environment in globalization. The underlying link between globalization and natural resources has been overlooked majority of the times, yet can be considered crucial for economy and environment on the whole. There is a global inheritance of natural resources as life is sustained in ecosystems shared by everyone irrespective of national borders. The ecosystem can be seen as a common shared atmosphere that provides protection from harsh climate and shielding everyone from harsh rays of ultraviolet rays (Toms 2010). As a response to the issue for monitoring it, there are issues related to natural resources depletion that further provoke a strong coordination between global and regional governance. Also, there is no denial in the fact that there is an intrinsic relationship between the global environment and the global economic development. This is because the global environment has been providing natural resources as required for fuelling growth and services of ecosystem underpinning both, livelihoods and life (Agrawal 2008). As the strong relationship between natural resources and globalization is obvious, the framework of environment ethics had been presented for spreading awareness about natural resources and their management (Young 2010). Evidences in bulk from resources rich nation pointed out the positive results for local countries and communities during the development of natural resource (Berkes 2006). Elements like equally redistributing the revenue, strong institutions of public, environmental planning, investing in local capacity along with transparency measures make key contribution in the virtuous cycle for managing natural resources, for the establishment and sustainability of wealth and prosperity across business organizations and citizens. Environmental Ethics It is the responsibility of policy makers for considering the environment effect underlying leased land for activities of productivity. As a significant example, wetlands can be represented as important components in the eco- system, yet can be considered as an area with most productivity for rice framing at larger scale. In any of the cases, it is significant that there is involvement of population to discuss about the issues (Anderson 2010). In this context, it can be stated that community consent has ended up becoming a formally set requirement related to multiple instruments, like the standard of the broad community support across the International Corporation of Finance, following the declaration by United Nations. In considering the issue of natural resource depletion, there is need for huge emphasis on sustainable management and conservation of natural resources (Berkes 2007). Environmental ethics is a field of philosophy where there is a consideration of moral relations between the natural environment and human beings (Bormann 2005). As a branch of study, there is an underlying assumption that humans hold specific responsibilities for the protection of their natural environment, while seeking to assist people along with their leaders for spreading awareness and acting with responsibility when things end up impacting the natural world (Stiglitz 2007). This framework identifies four different dimensions of individual responsibility towards the natural resources and earth. These are mentioned further ahead (Bulte 2008): Shallow Ecology: The philosophical system of belief holds the assumption that humans have key responsibility for protection of environment for supporting human life in both, the future and the present. Ethics: The field of philosophy tends to be dealing with the general nature of specific moral choices and morals. Deep Ecology: The philosophical system of belief holds the assumption that each and every form of life, human, animal, plant, involving an intrinsic right for its existence across the natural environment and that humans are known to be having a direct responsibility for maintaining the environment in each and every form of life. Anthropomorphic: Thought or described of having human attributes or human form. Key Responsibilities and Authorities for Natural Resources Management For meeting the increased demand of population across the globe, there is major pressure on natural resources. A number of new sources have been making entry in global market platforms, majority of them across emerging or developing economies (Crona 2009). Valuable resources like timber, gold, tungsten, copper and oil can be identified in a number of fragile or poor states, specifically across extremely remote regions (Zerner 2005). There is no doubt that natural resources are indispensable for proper function of modernized economies in this globalized world and to achieve and maintain living standards high in every nation. They are production related primary inputs required for manufacturing goods (Rudra et al 2011). They also help in providing energy required for transporting individuals and products from one place to another, to provide electricity and to heat homes and work places. They also are a potentially unending valuable materials source and plant and wildlife habitat. It is not exaggerated to state that the way in which the globalized world operates and manages its natural resources is the way to determine global economy sustainability. Due to natural resource significance across all economies and in every endeavour of industries, the management of these resources in the globalized world rests upon all nations and not any specific authority (Reddy 2009). Also natural resources trade will certainly continue growing in the future years and therefore improvised international cooperation and domestic regulatory legislations are needed for contributing to gain efficiency, eliminate extraction and use of natural resources based adverse consequence and increase market price stability for these goods. Since the last decade, it has been recognized by a number of actors that natural resources when managed in a proper manner, hold huge tendency for contributing towards economic and social development (Ewel 2001). Evidences in bulk from resources rich nation pointed out the positive results for local countries and communities during the development of natural resource (Young 2010). Elements like equally redistributing the revenue, strong institutions of public, environmental planning, investing in local capacity along with transparency measures make key contribution in the virtuous cycle for managing natural resources, for the establishment and sustainability of wealth and prosperity across business organizations and citizens (Fabricius 2004). Such responsibilities are perceived by a number of civil societies, organizations, international companies for addressing the relation between conflict and natural riches by collaboration of several significant tools and guidelines for assisting nations to ensure that there is a proper development and utilization of these resources (Gonsalves 2005). A number of bodies of expertise can be seen pertaining to the opportunities and challenges in association with exploitation of natural resources that include mechanisms of supporting ensuring that the wealth of a nation does not end up undermining the prosperity. It is also the responsibility of policy makers for considering the environment effect underlying leased land for activities of productivity. As a significant example, wetlands can be represented as important components in the eco- system, yet can be considered as an area with most productivity for rice framing at larger scale (Griffith 2010). In any of the cases, it is significant that there is involvement of population to discuss about the issues. In this context, it can be stated that community consent has ended up becoming a formally set requirement related to multiple instruments, like the standard of the broad community support across the International Corporation of Finance, following the declaration by United Nations (Miller 2008). The sustainable utilization of the environment and the natural resources for production of services and goods in fisheries, forestry, livestock and agriculture is highly dependent on the ways in which communities, individuals and other groups obtain the ability of gaining access to forests, fisheries and land. Responsibly governing the tenure of forests, fisheries and land is significant for ensuring responsible investment in sustainable development, sustainable utilization of environment and social stability, while eradicating food insecurity and poverty across rural regions (Minang 2005). As a significant example, an internal cash flow of an organization may impact the spending of investment due to a hierarchy of finance within which internal funds are known to be having an advantage of cost over equity finance or new debt. In these types of circumstances, the financing decision and investment of an organization are independent. For nations under the endowment of natural resources, recent trends provide a suggestion that exploiting the factor of natural resources leads towards booms of economy, fuelling the growth of GDP. These major returns tor production of natural resource may be more in comparison with just temporary surges due to the increase in global demand (Pretty 2003). It has been stated by IMF (2008; 9) that the current boom in commodity price is considerably unique in that it is broader as well as long lasting with increased price than what had been expected. In context with nations persuading comparative benefit in natural resource, there is a focus of countless studies in the field of political science on extremely broad negative repercussion regarding the endowment of this factor. A significant role has been played by domestic institutions to limit the progress of politics and the growth of economy (Race 2001). This curse of resource can be considered in association with the survival and emergence of economic under- development, authoritarian regimes, political violence and higher levels of corruption and all of this reviewing is done in large contributions perceiving specific volume. The credible barriers across the global world results in incumbents for providing the levels of re- distribution for co- opting the opposing view, and finally lowering the scope of democratization (Reddy 2009). The relationship between globalization and natural resources, even though overlooked more often, is crucial to both the concepts. Itself, the natural resources are inherently global with ecosystems sustaining life and watersheds crossing national borders more frequently, movement of air pollution across oceans and continents, and a common shared atmosphere that provides protection from harsh climate and shielding everyone from harsh rays of ultraviolet rays (Rudra and Jensen 2011). Responding to and monitoring the issues regarding depletion of natural resources ends up provoking a significant need to coordinate regional or global governance. In addition to this, the environment has an intrinsic link with the development of economy as it provides natural resources for fuelling growth and services of ecosystem underpinning both, livelihoods and life. Recommendations This essay research paper is of the notion that in this globalized world, the responsibility to sustain and maintain the natural resource usage by managing them appropriately and sustainably lies in the hands of all developed and developing nations. This section offers some key insights as to how this responsibility can be tackled by these nations in order to make sure natural resources continued usage with extra efforts to manage it. Nations that are about to develop from status of low income has been able to find various measures essential to set the foundation for efficiency and effective natural resource management (Pretty 2003). These take into consideration the interlinkage between sectors of an economy inclusive of the following: Development of an overall strategy for the sector of natural resources across all economies that helps in incorporating the main goal to transform and develop. Such strategy will help in outlining the extraction based optimal levels with the trajectory of economy particularly engendering all the policies of natural resource management, determine types and levels of incentives for investment encourage, allow being transparent and setting up standards for accountability, stipulate the requirement to protect environment and biodiversity and put into position a system for revenue based effective usage derived from development of natural resource (Race 2001). Considering to perform a comprehensive inventory survey of the several natural resources form. This information is essential for planning short term and long term goals for efficiency natural resource allocation decision There are several risks that require to be mitigated such as conflict on natural resource allocation but each of these require management for responsible control over natural resource usage. The risks can be mitigated by the following: Formulation of a comprehensive policy for resource use and tenure after consulting extensively (Subramanian 2003) Establishment of effective mechanisms of coordination for competing demands management like permit building and rights on mining or rights of property Setting up an office for natural resource registry Development of capacity for natural resource administration such as land administration Establishment of Web based GIS for management of resources Conclusion In this globalized world, natural resource allocation to a nation is responsible for determining the extent of success that nation can gain in future. When managed appropriately, resources have the power to offer development and better life for people of a nation. It is now the responsibility of this collective globalized world to join hands and individually start making a different. The way ahead should take into consideration that there are various inter-dependent agendas for management of resource sector, making peace and building it. This consciousness furthermore should acknowledge conflict of political economies and focus more deeply over inclusion by space multiplication for making peace with regard to natural resource management (Tomas 2010). Furthermore, a focus is required on consensus and not on consultation as the base to make decisions wherein governments across the global should build legitimacies and capacities that help in strengthening natural resource management age nda. The best approach will be, a do no harm approach that looks at balancing opportunities with risks that can be designed for every nation. This approach should take into consideration broad objectives for development, engage with standards at global level and ground towards transparency. References Agrawal, A., 2008. Patronage or participation? Communityà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ based natural resource management reform in subà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ Saharan Africa. Development and Change,39(4), pp.557-585. Anderson, D.A., 2010.Environmental economics and natural resource management(No. Ed. 3). Routledge, Taylor Francis. Berkes, F., 2007. Community-based conservation in a globalized world. Proceedings of the National academy of sciences,104(39), pp.15188-15193. Berkes, F., 2006. From community-based resource management to complex systems: the scale issue and marine commons.Ecology and Society,11(1), p.45. Bormann, B.T., 2005.Adaptive management of natural resources: theory, concepts, and management institutions(Vol. 654). US Dept. of Agriculture, Forest Service, Pacific Northwest Research Station. Bulte, E.H., 2008. The resource curse revisited and revised: A tale of paradoxes and red herrings.Journal of environmental economics and management,55(3), pp.248-264. Castree, N., 2004. Differential geographies: place, indigenous rights and localresources.Political Geography,23(2), pp.133-167. Crona, B.I., 2009. The role of social networks in natural resource governance: What relational patterns make a difference?.Global environmental change,19(3), pp.366-374. Ewel, K.C., 2001. Natural resource management: the need for interdisciplinary collaboration.Ecosystems,4(8), pp.716-722. Fabricius, C., 2004. The fundamentals of community-based natural resource management.Rights, resources and rural development: Community-based natural resource management in Southern Africa, pp.3-43. Folke, C. eds., 2009.Principles of ecosystem stewardship: resilience-based natural resource management in a changing world. Springer Science Business Media. Gonsalves, J.F., 2005.Participatory Research and Development for Sustainable Agriculture and Natural Resource Management: Understanding participatory research and development(Vol. 1). IDRC. Griffith, R., 2010. Governance principles for natural resource management.Society and Natural Resources,23(10), pp.986-1001. Miller, D., 2008. National responsibility and global justice.Critical review of international social and political philosophy,11(4), pp.383-399. Minang, P.A., 2005. Assessing participatory GIS for communityà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ based natural resource management: claiming community forests in Cameroon.The Geographical Journal,171(4), pp.340-356. Pretty, J., 2003. Social capital and the collective management of resources. Science,302(5652), pp.1912-1914. Race, D., 2001. The twists and turns of community participation in natural resource management in Australia: What is missing?.Journal of environmental planning and management,44(3), pp.293-308. Reddy, R.V., 2009. Adoption and adaptation of natural resource management innovations in smallholder agriculture: reflections on key lessons and best practices.Environment, development and sustainability,11(3), pp.601-619. Rudra, N. and Jensen, N.M., 2011. Globalization and the politics of natural resources.Comparative Political Studies,44(6), pp.639-661. Stiglitz, J.E. eds., 2007.Escaping the resource curse(pp. 11-13). New York: Columbia University Press. Subramanian, A., 2003.Addressing the natural resource curse: An illustration from Nigeria(No. w9804). National Bureau of Economic Research. Toms, S.V., 2010. A review of design principles for community-based natural resource management.Ecology and Society,15(4), p.38. Young, I.M., 2010. Responsibility and global labor justice. InResponsibility in Context(pp. 53-76). Springer Netherlands. Zerner, C. eds., 2005.Communities and conservation: histories and politics of community-based natural resource management. Rowman Altamira.

Paradise Lost free essay sample

A discussion of Eve as a femme fatale in John Miltons Paradise Lost. (more)

Presidents Without a College Degree

Presidents Without a College Degree There are very few presidents without college degrees in American history. Thats not to say there havent been any, or that its impossible to work in politics without a college degree. Legally, you can be elected president of the United States  even if you didnt go to college.  The U.S. Constitution  does not set forth any education requirements for presidents.   But its a  pretty extraordinary achievement for a president without a college degree to be elected today. Every chief executive elected to  the White House in modern history  has held at least a bachelors degree. Most have earned advanced degrees or law degrees from Ivy League schools. In fact, every president since George H.W. Bush has held a degree from an Ivy League university.   Bush was a graduate of Yale University. So was his son, George W. Bush, the 43rd president, and Bill Clinton. Barack Obama got his law degree from Harvard University. Donald Trump, the billionaire real-estate developer and businessman elected president in 2016, graduated from the University of Pennsylvania, another Ivy League school. The trend is clear: not only do modern presidents have college degrees, but theyve also earned degrees from the most elite universities in the United States. But it wasnt always common for presidents to have earned degrees or even attended college. In fact, educational attainment wasnt a prime consideration among voters. Education of Early Presidents Fewer than half of the nations first 24 presidents held college degrees. Thats because they just didnt need to. For much of the nation’s history a college education was a prerequisite for the rich, well-connected or both; of the first 24 men who became president, 11 had not graduated from college at all (though three of those had attended some college without earning a degree), wrote  Drew DeSilver, a senior writer at the Pew Research Center. The most recent president without a college degree was Harry S. Truman, who served until 1953. The 33rd president of the United States, Truman attended business college and law school but graduated from neither. List of Presidents Without College Degrees George Washington: The nations first president never took college courses but did earn a  surveyors certificate.James Monroe: The nations fifth president attended William Mary College but didnt graduate.Andrew Jackson: The seventh president did not attend college.Martin Van Buren: The nations eighth president did not attend college.William Henry Harrison: The ninth president of the United States  attended both  Hampden-Sydney College and the University of Pennsylvania School of Medicine; he didnt graduate from either.Zachary Taylor: The nations 12th president did not attend college.Millard Fillmore: The 13th president did not attend college.Abraham Lincoln: The 16th president did not attend college.Andrew Johnson: The 17th president did not attend college.Grover Cleveland: The 22nd president did not attend college.William McKinley: The 25th president took courses at both Allegheny College and Albany Law School but did not graduate from either.Harry S. Truman: The 33rd presiden t took courses at Spaldings Commercial College  and the University of Kansas City School of Law but didnt earn degrees from either. Why Presidents Need College Degrees Now Even though nearly a dozen U.S. presidents - including some very successful ones - never earned degrees, every White House occupant since Truman has earned at least a bachelors degree. Would the likes of Lincoln and Washington be elected today without degrees? Probably not, wrote  Caitlin Anderson on CollegePlus, an organization that works with students to earn degrees.  Our information saturated society believes education must take place in the traditional classroom setting. Having a college degree makes candidates attractive. It makes anyone attractive. It’s essential.

Reaction paper 2 parts 7 and 8 Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Reaction paper 2 parts 7 and 8 - Essay Example Given this second viewpoint, I would say that this hardly contributes to the definition of masculinity, because it informs on what women are based on what men are, but does not establish what being a man is. Recent research into masculinity has underscored this male-female polarity. In the American setting, cultural masculinity studies have dealt nearly exclusively in heterosexual masculinity behaviour and attributes (Traister, 2000, p. 274), which precludes homosexual masculinity as a seeming misnomer since it does not fit into the polar male-female model. Cultural changes are at the center of an evolving meaning given to â€Å"masculinity†, with the socio-economic developments in Europe defining the directions of Western thought in this regard. When Renaissance secular culture spread, interest in sexuality broke free of its strict regulation during the monastic period. When European monarchies embarked on overseas conquests and commerce prospered, the male role became identified with business, finance, and overall economic success. The fact that a man had more, and more expensive, possessions made him more of a man, better able to provide for his wife, their children, and his household members. The patriarchal system was further strengthened by the imperial monarchy where the power of men over women was further institutionalised (Connell, 1995, p. 248), formalising men’s domestic authority over women and enforcing the latter’s dependence upon the former’s economic property, not because the women did nothin g to contribute to it, as they often managed the running of the estate and the network of alliances among the gentry (p. 249), but because they could not legally own property. The Western image of masculinity is an ideal that was fostered upon the colonial East as a means of further strengthening the rule of the colonizers upon the conquered (Krishnaswamy, 2002, p. 292). Primary among these ideals is the image of the white, elegantly proportioned,

Bibliography Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words - 1

Bibliography - Essay Example At the age of 11, in 1607, he was sent to the boarding school, La Fleche, a Jesuit institution. He studied many subjects, including, mathematics, science, rhetoric, verbal arts, philosophy, and astronomy. However it was mathematics that most attracted the young Descartes. Although is believed to have received his degree from University of Poiters in civil and canon law between 1615 and 1616, there is a period on and off throughout 1614-1618, where Descartes fell out of the world, many believe that he may have some sort of emotional or mental break-down and was in seclusion n Paris, France (Skirry ). Descartes earliest accomplishments included contributions to the Scientific Revolution. It was he that established the â€Å"principle of inertia.† He presented the thinking that the universe, all of nature, and human beings are all a part of one great machine. He, also, established a philosophy called â€Å"the mind-body dichotomy† Descartes believed that a person’s mind is a separate entity from the physical body and enters in and out of the body through the pineal gland. This work took Descartes away from mathematics and hard science and into the world of philosophy. He would publish four books that are extremely significant. The first was titled â€Å"The Discourse on the Method, published in 1637. It was followed, in 1641, by â€Å"The Meditations on First Philosophy† and, â€Å"The Principles of Philosophy,† in 1644. The final major volume titled, â€Å"The Passions of the Soul,† was completed in 1649 (Weisstein). However, Descartes, most well-known and often referenced concept was, â€Å"I think therefore I am.† This statement always garners great philosophical debate. It is a phrase that can be perceived in many ways, depending on the user. However, it verifies the relevance of individuality and the power will. All of these works helped to form a unique perspective and perception of the world that would ultim ately earn Descartes’ the title of â€Å"The father of modern philosophy.† He changed many of the traditional perspectives on nature, the natural world, and humanity’s relationship to it. Unfortunately, not all of those living in Descartes time were inspired and pleased with Descartes philosophies, theories, and principles. The Catholic Church was not a supporter of Descartes. They felt that much of his work could be perceived as directly challenging church doctrines and practices. In fact, Descartes work would eventually find itself added to the lists of books not considered approved reading by the Church. Interestingly enough Descartes believed his works, in fact, proved the likely existence of God; all the same the Church would never be a supporter of his work (Correas ). Rene Descartes continued his work but would eventually retire in the Netherlands. He met a maid in the house of a friend with whom he had a relationship. However, he did not marry this woman and they shared one daughter. Sadly she died from a fever around the age of five. He had agree to join the Court of Queen Kristina of Sweden and remained in the Netherlands for the last 20 years of his life. However, the health problems of his childhood never really left him. Rene Descartes died in February of 1650, at the age of 54 from complications related to pneumonia; no doubt contributed to by the cold Scandinavian weather (Skirry). This was the

Research into motivations for mountain biking tourism

Research into motivations for mountain biking tourism The two types of survey taken into consideration were a mail survey and an e-survey. The former is reported to be the most effective method of surveying a membership organisation (Veal 1997). This delivery method was not undertaken though, due to the cost of printing 360 questionnaires and the accompanying letters, as well as purchase of envelopes and stamps. These expenses would increase substantially if reminders were to be sent. Therefore, it was decided that an e-survey would be employed. The advantages of an e-questionnaire included low cost of conducting the survey and the possibility of instant analysis of the collected data (Veal 1997). An additional benefit was the possibility of designing a visually attractive questionnaire. Furthermore, online surveys were selected as they are eco-friendly, owing to the non-use of paper (Survey Monkey 2007), an approach reflecting the basic principles of the Forestry Commission, the administrator of the locations which are a focus of this study. An e-survey is also more advantageous for the respondents as they are allowed to take their time to answer the questions. At the same time, completing a survey online is quicker in comparison with filling out a postal survey (Survey Monkey 2007). The biggest disadvantage can be the general perception of some e-surveys as part of the increasing volume of ‘junk e-mail’, which might play a role in response rates (Veal 1997). The spam and personal data protection concerns were addressed by selecting a legitimate and reputable organisation (IMBA U.K.) to distribute the e-questionnaire. Another disadvantage of a web-based survey, just like a postal one, is its limited administration, which can negatively affect the response rate (Survey Monkey 2007). Further drawbacks of using a web-based survey include technical faults and multiple submissions by the same respondent. Although it was impossible to prevent the former issue, the latter was solved by the use of a tool allowing only one response per computer. 2.3. Survey instrument A two-page, self-administered fully electronic questionnaire was designed using an online survey tool surveymonkey.com. The questionnaire design process offered by Veal (1997) was adopted in the present work. Firstly, literature review was conducted to identify conceptual problems and research questions. Secondly, a list of information required to address the issues as created. Thirdly, questionnaire was selected as a method which would meet the information requirements. The questionnaires used by Green (2003) in a survey on IMBA U.S. members, as well as a study by Cessford (1995) on New Zealand mountain bikers served as a blueprint in the questionnaire design process. The factors examined in the questionnaire can be divided into five groups corresponding to the research objectives: 1. mountain bikers general characteristics (type of mountain biking participated in, level of advancement, frequency of participation); 2. mountain bikers’ demographic and socio-economic characteristics (age, gender, household size, education, occupation and income); 3. the Forestry Commission locations used by mountain bikers (identification of the most popular mountain biking centres in Great Britain); 4. travel patterns of mountain bikers and trip-related factors in decision making (importance of promotional channels and of various destination features in destination choice, spend, means of transport and accommodation used, use of tour operators); 5. the importance of adventure components in mountain biking and the motivations of mountain bikers. The e-questionnaire consisted of 21 questions, 15 of which concerned the respondent’s mountain biking experience, while the remaining 6 their demographics (see Appendix 4). The demographics section was presented on the second page, as inserting all 21 questions on a lengthy single page might discourage respondents from completing the survey. 19 questions were closed, while only 2 open-ended. It was decided that pre-coded questions are a more reasonable option since the questionnaire was respondent-completed and, as reported by Veal (1997), open-ended questions are too time consuming, which can negatively affect response rate. As regards question techniques, 2 kinds of rating scales were employed, namely Likert scale with simple YES/ NO answers, as well as semantic differentials indicating the degree of importance of a particular feature using 5-point scale (1 – not important, 2 – quite important, 3 – important, 4 – very important, 5 – extreme ly important). These two scales were not only easy to construct and administer, but also respondent friendly. Several questions were checklist or multiple choice type, and only 2 were open-ended, though they did not require descriptive answers. The ordering format was based on Veal (1997), who suggested sequencing questions in the following order: easy, relevant and personal. The questions were kept compact and simplified wherever possible, and clarity of layout was assured by using the online survey tool. Introductory remarks specifying the purpose of the survey were included on top of the questionnaire, while confidentiality and anonymity were ensured in remarks preceding the demographic section of the questionnaire. In addition, a thank you page was created at the end of the questionnaire. These measures, coupled with the survey participation request posted on IMBA U.K. forum in advance, were employed to maximise response rate. In order to ensure validity of the questionnaire-based data, ‘dummy’ categories were included. In question 4, listing the Forestry Commission managed mountain biking centres, 3 non-existent locations were added – Mammoth (ENG), Gutter Valley (SCO) and Badger Trail (WAL). In question 8, the same feature was repeated twice under different wording (‘Strong mtb community/ culture’ and ‘Strong mountain biking community/ culture’). This approach is suggested by Veal (1997) as a tool of measuring the degree of error in r esponses. In the pre-testing stage of the questionnaire design, a 21-question draft was e-mailed to 10 members of IMBA UK forum who had earlier declared that they would be interested in completing it. The purpose of the pre-test was to determine whether the instructions and questions were interpreted in a manner which had been intended (Finn et al. 2000). Specifically, wording, sequencing and layout of the questionnaire were to be tested (Veal 1997). Most of those who replied described it as â€Å"easy to complete and not time consuming†. Nevertheless, problems in two questions were indicated. Firstly, extending the list of Scottish mountain biking sites in question 4 was suggested. Upon reviewing the Internet sources, a total of 8 sites were added to the list. Secondly, it was signalled that question 13 asking about an approximate spend per trip was not precise enough. This issue was addressed by specifying the areas of spending that the respondents should consider (travel, food, drink , accommodation).

Dr. Richard P. Feynman Essay -- Physics Biography Biographies

The Early Life of Dr. Richard P. Feynman Richard Feynman was a modern Renaissance man. Hailed as a scientist, musician, Nobel Laureate, and teacher. He played in a street band in Rio de Janerio, deciphered Mayan hieroglyphics, a fundamental contributor to quantum electrodynamics, and one of two learned men of his time on Tanna Tuva, his experience and skill were of a broad range and applications. Born in 1918 in Far Rockaway, New York, Richard Feynman started working with and studying electronics at a young age. At eleven, he began to repair radio systems as a hobby, for hotels and homes alike. Because it was the Depression, and he worked for free, he received a good deal of demand. He wasn't trying to make a profit; he wanted to learn more about them, by repairing. His spare time was usually spent experimenting with various different electronics. He once crafted a radio that could pick up signals from Texas, and used it to "predict" radio shows, by listening to them a few hours before the local stations broadcast them. At seventeen, he attended MIT, studying physics and graduating after four years as a physics major. During this time he met Arlene, whom he married in 1941. She shared a vigor for life with Feynman, and served as a point of constancy in his life. He went on to study at Princeton after graduating from MIT in 1943. Here he had another experiment; if you take a S-shaped sprinkler, submerge it in water, and vacuum water into it, which direction does it turn, the same as if it were spraying water into air, or the opposite? The debate for this question went on long enough, that Feynman decided to go out and DO it. By placing such a sprinkler into a large water bottle, and pressurizing the water to push water int... ... light also brought about the discovery of Tuvan throat-singers, singers of a particular style that they can harmonize with themselves, something previously thought to be impossible. In 1985, Feynman published his book, Surely You're Joking, Mr. Feynman, an autobiography which relates his life and personal anecdotes, which was a national bestseller for 14 weeks. Posthumously, the sequel, What Do You Care What Other People Think?, was also published. In 1987, Feynman was discovered to have another cancerous tumor. Although this one was also remover, it left him greatly weakened. He was admitted to a hospital again in February 1988 for a gastrointestinal ulcer, which destroyed his other kidney. Although he could have extended his lifespan by using a dialysis machine, he declined that to accept a natural death. Dr. Richard P. Feynman died on February 15, 1988.

Computer Networks

– Suresh Khanal Computer Networking Short Questions and Answer www. psexam. com Computer Networking Short Questions and Answers Suresh Khanal Kalanki, Kathmandu [email  protected] com [email  protected] com Published By: http://www. psexam. com contact: [email  protected] com Computer Networking: Short Questions and Answers Published by PS Exam Kalanki, Kathmandu Nepal www. psexam. com Copyright  ©2009 author.No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, scanning or otherwise except for personal and non-commercial use without the prior written permission of the author. About the Author Suresh Khanal is a native of Kathmandu, Nepal, where he works as a freelance developer, programmer and technical writer/editor. He has been involved in teaching computers science since 1998 and over the years has written several articles and tutorials on Office Appli cations and Web Programming.Khanal holds a Master's of Science Degree in Information Technology Science. In his spare time, he enjoys travelling, posting in forums and play online games. Table of Contents Transmission Media What is transmission media? What are the types of transmission media? Describe bound transmission media. Describe unbound transmission media. Bound Transmission Media Explain twisted pair cable. Explain Co-axial cable. Explain Fiber-Optics cable. 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 4 5 Match the following types of connectors with the cables to which they are used. Compare BNC with UTP Cables Unbound Transmission Media Explain Radio Wave. What is Microwave? List the Advantages of microwaves. What are the Disadvantages of Microwaves? Describe Infra Red. Computer Network What is a computer network? What are the advantages of Networking? Explain Network Services 8 9 9 10 11 11 11 12 12 12 13 What are the five major network services? What is Network Server? What is a client? What is a dedi cated server? What is workstation? What are dumb terminals? Types of Computer Network What is a LAN? What is MAN? What is WAN? Clarify Enterprise WANs.Clarify Global WANs. What are the two types of LAN? Protocols What is a protocol? What are the three major network protocols? Match the following protocols and their functions LAN Topologies What are the two network connection types? Explain Point-to-Point connection type. Explain multipoint connection. What are the basic LAN topologies? Explain Bus Topology. What are the advantages of bus topology? 13 13 13 14 14 14 15 15 16 16 16 17 17 18 18 18 19 20 20 20 21 21 21 23 What are the disadvantages of bus topology? What is Ring Topology? Point out the major advantages of Ring Topology.Point out the disadvantages of Ring Topology. Explain Star Topology. What are the benefits of Star Topology? What are the disadvantages of Star Topology? What are the popular topologies other than basic Topologies? Network Standards What is a Networking St andard? What are the four major industry standards? What is an Ethernet? How an Ethernet Worked? What is Medium Access Control of Ethernet? Explain Ethernet Frame. List some advantages of Ethernet. What are the disadvantages of Ethernet Cabling? What is ARCNet? List the advantages of ARCNet. What are the disadvantages of ARCNet?How does a Token-Passing Protocol works? 24 24 25 25 25 26 26 27 27 27 27 28 28 29 29 30 30 31 32 32 32 Explain Logical Ring Physical Star topology for Token-Passing Standard. 32 List some most useful advantages of Token Ring. 33 Point out the disadvantages of Token Ring. What do you mean by Beaconing and Auto-Reconfiguration? Network Architecture What is Network Architecture? What are the popular Network Architectures? Explain ISO's OSI Architecture Explain IBM's SNA Architecture Networking Model Explain Peer-to-Peer Networking Model. Explain Client/Server Networking Model.Network and Internet Terminologies NICs Hubs/Repeaters Bridges Router Switches Transce ivers Gateway Proxy Serer Firewall Node Wireless Network Internet WWW 34 34 34 34 35 35 36 37 37 37 38 38 39 39 40 41 42 42 43 43 43 43 45 45 IRC CU-SeeMe Telnet Gopher HTML Browsers Dialup Connection IP Address Domain Name URL Web Browsing or Surfing Search Engine Meta Search Engine Internet Access Extranet Intranet Web Index Hypertext Email Email address Inbox Outbox Trash CC 46 47 48 49 49 50 53 53 54 54 54 55 57 57 58 58 58 59 59 59 60 60 61 61 BCC Reply Forward Attachments Bounced Netiquette Emoticons 62 62 62 62 62 62 62 Table of FiguresFigure 1: UTP Cable 2 Figure 2: UTP Cable Connector 2 Figure 3: STP Cable 3 Figure 4: STP Cable Structure 3 Figure 5: Co-Axial Cable 4 Figure 6: Co-Axial Cable Structure 4 Figure 7: Co-Axial Cable Connectors 5 Figure 8: Fibre Optics Cable Structure 6 Figure 9: Fiber Optics Cable 6 Figure 10: AUI Connector 7 Figure 11: BNC Connector 7 Figure 12: RJ45 Connector 8 Figure 13: SC Connector 8 Figure 14: Comparison between Twisted Pairs and Co-Axial C able 9 Figure 15: Radio Wave Transmission 9 Figure 16: Microwave Transmission 10 Figure 17: Microwave Transmitter, Receiver and Repeater 10 Figure 18: Infrared Device Error!Bookmark not defined. Figure 19: Computer Network 12 Figure 20: Workstation 14 Figure 21: Dumb Terminal 15 Figure 22: Wide Area Network 16 Figure 23: Enterprise WAN 17 Figure 24: TCP/IP Structure 18 Figure 25: IPX/SPX Structure 19 Figure 26: Different LAN Topologies 20 Figure 27: Bus Topology 21 Figure 28: Bus Topology Network connected with other network 22 Figure 29: T Connector 22 Figure 30: Different Cable Terminators 23 Figure 31: Ring Topology 24 Figure 32: Star Topology 25 Figure 33: Star Topology 26 Figure 34: Tre Topology Error! Bookmark not defined. Figure 35: Mesh Topology Error! Bookmark not defined.Figure 36: Ethernet Network 29 Figure 37: ARCNet Board and Card 31 Figure 38: Network with MSAU 33 Figure 39: ISO's OSI Architecture 35 Figure 40: OSI an SNA Comparision 36 Figure 41: LAN NIC Card 38 Figur e 42: Hub 39 Figure 43: Bridge 40 Figure 44: Router 41 Figure 45: Switch 41 Figure 46: Transceiver 42 Figure 47: Gateway PC 43 Figure 48: Nework with Wireless Stations 44 Figure 49: Tim Berners Lee 45 Figure 50: Yahoo Chat 46 Figure 51: CU SeeMe 47 Figure 52: CU SeeMe Conferencing 48 Figure 53: Telnet Screen 48 Figure 54: Different Browsers Logo 50 Figure 55: Mozilla Firefox 51 Figure 56: Netscape Navigator 51 Figure 57: Internet Explorer 52 Figure 58: Google Chrome 52 Figure 59: IP Address Structure 53 Figure 60: IP Address and Subnet Mask 53Figure 61: Yahoo, Ask, MSN, Google Search Engines Figure 62: Alta Vista Search Engine Figure 63: Lycos Figure 64: Meta Search Engine Figure 65: Web Index Figure 66: Hypertext and Hyper Link Figure 67: Email Client Interface Figure 68: New Email Message Figure 69: Emoticons 55 56 56 57 58 59 60 61 63 Computer Networking Short Questions and Answers Suresh Khanal Kalanki, Kathmandu [email  protected] com [email  protected] com Published By: ht tp://www. psexam. com contact: [email  protected] com Computer Networking Short Questions and Answers Contribution of Suresh Khanal for PS Exam Transmission Media What is transmission media? Transmission media is a pathway through which data are transmitted in network.We use different types of cables or waves to transmit data. What are the types of transmission media? There are two types of transmission media namely: bound transmission media and unbound transmission media. Describe bound transmission media. Bound transmission media are the cables that are tangible or have physical existence and are limited by the physical geography. Popular bound transmission media in use are twisted pair cable, co-axial cable and fiber optical cable. Describe unbound transmission media. Unbound transmission media are the ways of transmitting data without using any cables. These media are not bounded by physical geography.Microwave, Radio wave, Infra red are some of popular unbound transmission me dia. Bound Transmission Media Explain twisted pair cable. A pair of wires twisted with each other is known as twisted pair cable. A set of four pairs of twisted wires are bundled to form cable. These are the most common medium for LAN. Wires are twisted with each other so as to reduce the interference. http://www. psexam. com Page 1 Contribution of Suresh Khanal for PS Exam Figure 1: UTP Cable Figure 2: UTP Cable Connector Page 2 http://www. psexam. com Contribution of Suresh Khanal for PS Exam We can find two types of twisted pair cables, namely: Unshielded Twisted Pair Cable (UTP) and Shielded Twisted Pair Cable (STP).The twisted pair cable that is protected against electro-magnetic interference (EMI) is known as STP and the one which is not shielded against EMI is called Unshielded Twisted Pair. Figure 3: STP Cable 1–Jacket 2–Shield-braid 3–Shield-foil 4–Solid twisted pair 5–Drain wire Figure 4: STP Cable Structure http://www. psexam. com Page 3 Contribution of Suresh Khanal for PS Exam Explain Co-axial cable. A solid central conductor surrounded by insulating material and then by a cylindrical shield woven from fine wires is known as co-axial cable. The shield is usually connected to electrical ground to reduce electrical interference. Co-axial cables have broader bandwidth and thus suitable for audio, video data transmission. Figure 5: Co-Axial Cable Figure 6: Co-Axial Cable StructurePage 4 http://www. psexam. com Contribution of Suresh Khanal for PS Exam Figure 7: Co-Axial Cable Connectors Explain Fiber-Optics cable. A cable with central glass tube covered with protective shield which transmit data using photons is fiber optics cable. These cables transmit data via concentrated bursts of laser beams which are carried through bundles of hair thin glass fibers. They have advantages over electronic cables in transmission speed and volume. This technology has revolutionized telecommunication applications which used electron ic cables. Fiber optics cables as free from electromagnetic interference as well as wire tapping. http://www. sexam. com Page 5 Contribution of Suresh Khanal for PS Exam Figure 8: Fibre Optics Cable Structure Figure 9: Fiber Optics Cable Page 6 http://www. psexam. com Contribution of Suresh Khanal for PS Exam Match the following types of connectors with the cables to which they are used. Cable: (a) Thick Coax (100 Base 5), (b) UTP (10 Base-T), (c) Fiber Optics (10 Base-FL) (d) Thin Coax (100 Base 5) Connectors: (1) AUI, (2) BNC, (3) RJ45, (4) SC or ST Type Answer:- a -> 1, b -> 3, c -> 4, d -> 2 Figure 10: AUI Connector Figure 11: BNC Connector http://www. psexam. com Page 7 Contribution of Suresh Khanal for PS Exam Figure 12: RJ45 ConnectorFigure 13: SC Connector Compare BNC with UTP Cables BNC Derived from the thick Ethernet Coaxial Cable Flexibility of adding nodes Lower price and no need of Hub Difficult to locate faults Terminators needed The cabling is comparatively less relia ble Single segment length (node to node) up to 180 meters UTP Derived from telephone cable Decided by Hub ports Needs Hubs Introduction of Hub makes fault finding much easier Terminators not needed Inherently much reliable Single segment length up to 200 meters Page 8 http://www. psexam. com Contribution of Suresh Khanal for PS Exam Figure 14: Comparison between Twisted Pairs and Co-Axial Cable Unbound Transmission MediaUnbound transmission media extend beyond the limiting confines of cabling. They provide an excellent communication alternative for WANS. The lack of physical restrictions provides larger bandwidth as well as wide area capabilities. Unbound media typically operate at very high frequencies. The three types of unbound transmission media are: Radio wave, Micro wave, Infrared Explain Radio Wave. Although Radio waves are prevalent and well understood, we are just beginning to realize their enormous potential as a networking medium. Radio waves can operate on a single or mu ltiple frequency bands. Figure 15: Radio Wave Transmission http://www. psexam. com Page 9 Contribution of Suresh Khanal for PS Exam What is Microwave?Microwaves have been used in data communications for a long time. They have a higher frequency than radio waves and therefore can handle larger amounts of data. Microwave transmission is line of sight transmission. The transmit station must be in visible contact with the receive station. This sets a limit on the distance between stations depending on the local geography. Typically the line of sight due to the Earth's curvature is only 50 km to the horizon! Repeater stations must be placed so the data signal can hop, skip and jump across the country. Figure 16: Microwave Transmission Figure 17: Microwave Transmitter, Receiver and Repeater Page 10 http://www. psexam. comContribution of Suresh Khanal for PS Exam Microwaves operate at high operating frequencies of 3 to 10 GHz. This allows them to carry large quantities of data due to their large bandwidth. List the Advantages of microwaves. a. They require no right of way acquisition between towers. b. They can carry high quantities of information due to their high operating frequencies. c. Low cost land purchase: each tower occupies only a small area. d. High frequency/short wavelength signals require small antennae. What are the Disadvantages of Microwaves? a. Attenuation by solid objects: birds, rain, snow and fog. b. Reflected from flat surfaces like water and metal. c. Diffracted (split) around solid objects. d.Refracted by atmosphere, thus causing beam to be projected away from receiver. Describe Infra Red. Infrared offers a great unbound photonic solution. Like fiber-optic cabling, infrared communications use light, so they are not bound by the limitations of electricity. Figure 18: Infrared Device http://www. psexam. com Page 11 Contribution of Suresh Khanal for PS Exam Computer Network What is a computer network? Computer Network is a collection of distribut ed intelligent machines that are connected with each other with transmission media for the purpose of data sharing, communication and sharing of computer resources. Figure 19: Computer NetworkWhat are the advantages of Networking? The following are the distinct notes in favor of computer networking. a. The computers, staff and information can be well managed b. A network provides the means to exchange data among the computers and to make programs and data available to people c. It permits the sharing of the resources of the machine d. Networking also provides the function of back-up. e. Networking provides a flexible networking environment. Employees can work at home by using through networks ties through networks into the computer at office. Page 12 http://www. psexam. com Contribution of Suresh Khanal for PS Exam Explain Network ServicesNetwork services are the thing that a network can do. The major networking services are ? ? ? ? ? File Services: This includes file transfer, stor age, data migration, file update, synchronization and achieving. Printing Services: This service produces shared access to valuable printing devices. Message Services: This service facilitates email, voice mails and coordinate object oriented applications. Application Services: This services allows to centralize high profile applications to increase performance and scalability Database Services: This involves coordination of distributed data and replication. What are the five major network services? Major Network Services are: a. b. c. d. e.File Services Print Services Message Services Application Services Database Services What is Network Server? Network Server is a computer in Network that is designated to provide one or more network service. For example file server, database server etc. What is a client? A computer in network that connects to the server and uses the network services to perform user's tasks is a client. http://www. psexam. com Page 13 Contribution of Suresh Khanal for PS Exam What is a dedicated server? A network server designated to provide one particular service is known as dedicated server. For example if a computer is assigned for database service only then that computer is known as dedicated database server. What is workstation?A workstation is a node in network that is more powerful and can handle local information processing or graphics processing. A workstation usually has an inexpensive, small hard disk to carry out local tasks. Figure 20: Workstation Some workstations that have no disk drive of their own is known as diskless-workstation or dumb terminals. They terminals completely rely on LAN for their access. Network operating system lets the node work as if all the resources at the server belong to the node itself. What are dumb terminals? Those Workstations that have no disk drive of their own and rely completely on LAN for their access are called dumb terminals.The network operating system lets these terminals work as if all th e resources at the server belong to the workstation itself. Page 14 http://www. psexam. com Contribution of Suresh Khanal for PS Exam Figure 21: Dumb Terminal Types of Computer Network Computer networks fall into three classes regarding the size, distance and the structure namely: LAN (Local Area Network), MAN (Metropolitan Area Network), WAN (Wide Area Network). A LAN links a small group of functionally similar workstations within a local geographic area such as a series of adjacent cubicles or offices on the same floor. Once the network expands to include other floors or divers office within a metropolitan area, it becomes a MAN. Finally, a WAN is simply a LAN of LANs.WANs expand the boundaries of networking to a global or even galactic scale. What is a LAN? A LAN is a Local Area Network, within a single building or a specific confined space. LANs typically comprise only one transmission media type such as coaxial cable or twisted pair. LANs are characterized by comparatively high -speed communications. These high speeds are possible because LANs use one kind of cable which generally is limited to 5 km or less. http://www. psexam. com Page 15 Contribution of Suresh Khanal for PS Exam What is MAN? MAN stands for Metropolitan Area Networks. MAN is larger than a LAN and as its name implies, covers the area of a single city.MANs rarely extend beyond 100 KM and frequently comprise a combination of different hardware and transmission media. The two most important components of MANs are security and standardization. Security is important because information is being shared between dissimilar systems. Standardization is necessary to ensure reliable data communication. What is WAN? A wide area network is simply a LAN of LANs. WANs connect LANs that may be on opposite sides of a building, across the country or around the world. WANS are characterized by the slowest data communication rates and the largest distances. WANs can be of two types: an enterprise WAN and Globa l WAN. Figure 22: Wide Area NetworkClarify Enterprise WANs. An enterprise WAN connects an entire organization including all LANs at various sites. This term is used for large, widespread organizations such as corporations, universities and governments. Page 16 http://www. psexam. com Contribution of Suresh Khanal for PS Exam Figure 23: Enterprise WAN Clarify Global WANs. Global WANs also span the world but they do not have to connect LANS within a single organization. The Internet is an example of a global WAN. It connects diverse locations, organizations and institutions throughout the world. Global WANS can be public or private. Private WANs are called Intranet which belongs to an organization.Public WANs are open to everybody so that anybody can connect and use the resources and services available. What are the two types of LAN? There are basically two types of Local Area Networks namely: Arcnet and Ethernet. http://www. psexam. com Page 17 Contribution of Suresh Khanal for PS Ex am Protocols What is a protocol? The term protocol refers to a set of rules and procedures that govern the transmission of messages over a physical networking medium. The most common network protocols are: (a) TCP/IP, (b) IPX/SPX and (c) NetBEUE What are the three major network protocols? The three major network protocols are: 1. TCP/IP 2. IPX/SPX (Used in Novell Netware) 3. NetBEUE (Product of Microsoft Co. ) Figure 24: TCP/IP StructurePage 18 http://www. psexam. com Contribution of Suresh Khanal for PS Exam Figure 25: IPX/SPX Structure Match the following protocols and their functions (a) http, (b) pop, (c) ftp, (d) smtp, (e) MIME, 1. Send email messages 2. Transfer multimedia information 3. Send email attachment 4. Transfer files in servers and clients computers 5. Receive email messages Answer: (a) -> 2, (b) -> 5, (c) -> 4, (d) -> 1, (e) -> 3 http://www. psexam. com Page 19 Contribution of Suresh Khanal for PS Exam LAN Topologies The term topology defines the geographic arrangem ent of networking devices. It describes the actual layout of the network hardware.Given the location of workstations and peripherals, the goal of topology is to find the most economical and efficient way to connect all the users to the network resources while providing adequate capacity to handle user demands, maintain system reliability and minimize delay. Figure 26: Different LAN Topologies The selection of a topology for a network can not be done in isolation as it affects the choice of media and the access method used. Because it determines the strategy used in wiring a building for a network and deserves some careful study. What are the two network connection types? The two different network connection types are (a) point-to-point connection and (b) multipoint connection. Explain Point-to-Point connection type. A point-to-point connection is a direct link between two devices such as a computer and a printer.Most of today's point-to-point connections are associated with modems a nd PSTN (Public Switched Telephone Network) communications. Page 20 http://www. psexam. com Contribution of Suresh Khanal for PS Exam Explain multipoint connection. A multipoint connection is a link between three or more devices. Historically, multipoint connections were used to attach central CPs to distributed dumb terminals. In today's LAN environments, multipoint connections link many network devices in various configurations. What are the basic LAN topologies? The three simple LAN topologies that are combined to form any practical topology are known as basic LAN topologies.They are, Bus Topology, Ring Topology and Star Topology. Explain Bus Topology. The physical Bus topology is the simplest and most widely used of the network designs. It consists of one continuous length of cable (trunk) and a terminating resistor (terminator) at each end. Data communication message travels along the bus in both directions until it is picked up by a workstation or server NIC. If the message is missed or not recognized, it reaches the end of the cabling and dissipates at the terminator. Figure 27: Bus Topology http://www. psexam. com Page 21 Contribution of Suresh Khanal for PS Exam All nodes on the bus topology have equal access to the trunk.This is accomplished using short drop cables or direct T-connectors. The number of devices and the length of the trunk can be easily expanded. Figure 28: Bus Topology Network connected with other network Figure 29: T Connector Page 22 http://www. psexam. com Contribution of Suresh Khanal for PS Exam Figure 30: Different Cable Terminators What are the advantages of bus topology? The advantages of physical bus topology are: a. It uses established standards and it is relatively easy to install. b. It requires less media than other topologies. http://www. psexam. com Page 23 Contribution of Suresh Khanal for PS Exam What are the disadvantages of bus topology?The disadvantages of bus topology are: a. The bus networks are difficult to reco nfigure, especially when the acceptable number of connections or maximum distances have been reached. b. They are also difficult to troubleshoot because everything happens on a single media segment. This can have dangerous consequences because any break in the cabling brings the network to its knee. What is Ring Topology? The physical ring topology is a circular loop of point-to-point links. Each device connects directly to the ring or indirectly through and interface device or drop cable. Message travel around the ring from node to node in a very organized manner.Each workstation checks the message for a matching destination address. If the address doesn't match the node simply regenerates the message and sends it on its way. If the address matches, the node accepts the message and sends a reply to the originating sender. Figure 31: Ring Topology Page 24 http://www. psexam. com Contribution of Suresh Khanal for PS Exam Point out the major advantages of Ring Topology. The advantages of ring topologies are: a. They are very easy to troubleshoot because each device incorporates a repeater. b. A special internal feature called beaconing allows troubled workstations to identify themselves quickly. Point out the disadvantages of Ring Topology.The disadvantages of ring topologies are: a. It is considerably difficult to install and reconfigure ring topology b. Media failure on unidirectional or single loop causes complete network failure. Explain Star Topology. The physical star topology uses a central controlling hub with dedicated legs pointing in all directions – like points of a star. Each network device has a dedicated point-to-point link to the central hub. This strategy prevents troublesome collisions and keeps the lines of communications open and free of traffic. Figure 32: Star Topology http://www. psexam. com Page 25 Contribution of Suresh Khanal for PS Exam This topology, obviously, require a great deal of cabling.This design provides an excellent p latform for reconfiguration and troubleshooting. Changes to the network are as simple as plugging another segment into the hub and a break in the LAN is easy to isolate and doesn't affect the rest of the network. Figure 33: Star Topology What are the benefits of Star Topology? The benefits of star topology are: a. Relatively easy to configure. b. Easy to troubleshoot c. Media faults are automatically isolated to the failed segment. What are the disadvantages of Star Topology? The disadvantages are considered as follows: a. Requires more cable than most topologies. b. Moderately difficult to install. Page 26 http://www. sexam. com Contribution of Suresh Khanal for PS Exam What are the popular topologies other than basic Topologies? Apart from basic topologies some other topologies worth considering are: mesh topology (every device connected to all other devices), Cellular Topology (wireless point to pint and multipoint design), Tree Topology (Hierarchical connections of devices), Hyb rid topology (combination of two or more basic topologies). Figure 34: Tre Topology Figure 35: Mesh Topology Network Standards What is a Networking Standard? Protocol (the logical component) and Topology (the physical component) is combined together to create a networking standard.These standards are developed and controlled by the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE). What are the four major industry standards? The four major industry standards are (a) Ethernet, Token Ring, ARCNet and FDDI (Fiber Distributed Data Interface). http://www. psexam. com Page 27 Contribution of Suresh Khanal for PS Exam What is an Ethernet? The Ethernet topology was developed at the University of Hawaii to connect computers on the various Islands. It was radio based design. Later, Robert Metacalfe went to Xeros's Palo Alto Research Center (PARC) laboratories and eliminated the radio portion and changed to co-axial cabling. Ethernet is ne of the most popular LAN technologies in use tod ay covering more than 85% of the networks. Ethernet system consists of three basic elements: 4. The physical medium use to carry Ethernet signals between computers on the network 5. A set of rules (protocols) embedded in each Ethernet interface that will decide how multiple computers on the network will have access to the data on the medium. 6. An Ethernet frame that consists of a standardized set of bits used to carry data over the system. How an Ethernet Worked? The operation of Ethernet can be described in simple terms as follows: Each computer on the Ethernet Network, also known as a node, operates independently of all other nodes.All nodes attached to an Ethernet are connected to a shared medium over which the Ethernet signals travel serially, one data bit at a time. To send data a station first listens to the channel and when the channel is idle the station transmits its information in the form of an Ethernet frame, or packet. The Ethernet rules (protocol) are defined in such a way that every node gets a fair amount of frame transmission opportunity. Page 28 http://www. psexam. com Contribution of Suresh Khanal for PS Exam Figure 36: Ethernet Network As each Ethernet frame is sent out on the shared medium, the Ethernet interfaces inside the node look at the destination address.The interfaces compare the destination address of the frame with their own address. The Ethernet interface with the same address as the destination address in the frame will read the entire frame and all other network interfaces will ignore the information. What is Medium Access Control of Ethernet? The set of rules which ensures that every node in an Ethernet gets a fair amount of frame transmission opportunity, are called the â€Å"Medium Access Control† mechanism. The Medium Access Control mechanism is based on a system called Carrier Sense Multiple Access with Collision Detection (CSMD/CD). Explain Ethernet Frame. The heart of Ethernet system is the Ethernet Frame, which is used to deliver information between the computers.The frame consists of a set of bits organized into several fields. These fields include address fields, a data field and an error checking field that checks the integrity of the bits in the frame to make sure that the frame has arrived intact. http://www. psexam. com Page 29 Contribution of Suresh Khanal for PS Exam List some advantages of Ethernet. Ethernet's major advantages are: 1. It is an inexpensive way to achieve high speed LAN transmissions (10 to 100 MB/s) 2. It is a proven technology that supports various writing configurations. 3. It works well with a large number of LAN and micro-tomainframe applications. 4. It is easy to install. What are the disadvantages of Ethernet Cabling?The Ethernet cabling ahs the following disadvantages: 1. Ethernet is not a high-level performer in high-load environments. This protocol (CSMA/CD: Carrier Sense Multiple Access/Collision Detection) can slow down dramatically if hundreds of works tations are competing for the same cabling trunk 2. Its linear bus cabling system can sometimes make it difficult to isolate problems. Page 30 http://www. psexam. com Contribution of Suresh Khanal for PS Exam What is ARCNet? The Attached Resource Computer Network (ARCNet) standard was created in 1977 at the Data Point Corporation by a scientist – John Murphy. ARCNet uses the token-passing protocol over a star and bus topology.The star and bus topology combines the flexibility of a star with the simplicity and throughput of a bus. Thus, ARCNet standard has a unique protocol/topology combination: token-passing protocol and Distributed star/bus topology. Figure 37: ARCNet Board and Card http://www. psexam. com Page 31 Contribution of Suresh Khanal for PS Exam List the advantages of ARCNet. Here are some of the ARCNet's advantages: 1. It is extremely reliable. 2. ARCNet is easy to install and troubleshoot. 3. It has an excellent track record of interoperability for those using AR CNet components from various manufacturers. 4. ARCNet supports a variety of cable types including coaxial, UTP and Fiber Optics. 5.It is inexpensive and built to stay that way. What are the disadvantages of ARCNet? Here are some disadvantages of ARCNet: 1. Standard ARCNet is very slow (2. 5 Mb/s). It is almost seven times slower than Token Ring. 2. ARCNet was not designed with interconnectivity in mind. For many installations, it's difficult to go beyond the confines of single LAN. How does a Token-Passing Protocol works? The token-passing protocol relies on a control signal called the token. A token is a 24-bit packet that circulates throughout the network from NIC to NIC in an orderly fashion. If a workstation wants to transmit a message, first it must seize the token.At that point, the workstation has complete control over the communications channel. The existence of only one token eliminates the possibility of signal collisions. This means that only one station can speak at a ti me. Explain Logical Ring Physical Star topology for Token-Passing Standard. It is sure that any break in the ring at any point will interrupt communications for all machines. To solve this problem, IBM developed a modified ring topology, which they called the logical ring Page 32 http://www. psexam. com Contribution of Suresh Khanal for PS Exam physical star. The central point of the physical star configuration is Token Ring hub called the multi-station access unit (MSAU, pronounced as masow).Workstations and servers attached to the MSAU through special STP adapter cables. IBM converted stars into a logical ring by connecting all MSAU hubs together through special ring-in (RI) and ring-out (RO) ports. Figure 38: Network with MSAU List some most useful advantages of Token Ring. Here are Token ring's most useful advantages: a. It offers excellent throughput under high-load conditions. b. Token Ring facilitates LAN-to-LAN mainframe connections especially for interfacing with IBM's broa der connectivity strategies. c. It has built-in troubleshooting mechanisms such as beaconing and auto-reconfiguration and may now be used with UTP cabling. http://www. psexam. com Page 33 Contribution of Suresh Khanal for PS Exam d.It has the most reliable protocol (token-passing), the most trouble-free configuration (physical star) and the fastest connectivity scheme (r or 16 mb/s). Point out the disadvantages of Token Ring. Few of the disadvantages of Token Ring are: a. Token Ring is very expensive. All topology components cost much more than other more popular standards. b. It is relatively proprietary. Token Ring's complexity is built into the hardware components. This means hat you need to choose a manufacturer and stick with it. c. Engineers must have considerable expertise to manage and troubleshoot token ring components. What do you mean by Beaconing and AutoReconfiguration?When a station does not receive a message from its nearest active upstream neighbor, it sends out a wa rning, otherwise known as a beacon. This beacon alerts everyone that something is wrong and helps to isolate the failure domain. When beacon occurs, the ring will attempt to fix the problem without your intervention. This process of self-healing is called auto-reconfiguration. Network Architecture What is Network Architecture? When two or more computer are connected with one another for the purpose of communicating data electronically, besides physical connection of computers, communication devices and system servers, a well defined standard known as architecture is required to establish cohesive communication between devices in Network. Page 34 http://www. psexam. om Contribution of Suresh Khanal for PS Exam What are the popular Network Architectures? The most popular architectures are: a. ISO Open System Architecture (OSI) b. IBM's System Network Architecture (SNA) Explain ISO's OSI Architecture The Open System Interconnection (OSI) is a standard reference model for communication between two end users in a network. It is used in developing products and understanding networks which means commonly used Internet product and services fit within the model. The OSI model describes seven layers of related functions that needed at each end, when a message is sent from one party to another party in a network.Each layer has its own set of special related function as follows: Figure 39: ISO's OSI Architecture http://www. psexam. com Page 35 Contribution of Suresh Khanal for PS Exam Layer 7 – Application Layer: Application programs that use the network. Layer 6 – Presentation Layer: Standardize data presented to the application. Layer 5 – Session Layer: Manages sessions between applications Layer 4 – Transport Layer: Provides error detection and correction Layer 3 – Network Layer: Provides data delivery across the physical connection Layer 2 – Data Link Layer: Provides data delivery across the physical connection Layer 1  œ Physical Layer: Defines the physical network media.Explain IBM's SNA Architecture SNA is a computer networking architecture that was developed by IBM to provide a network structure for IBM mainframe, midrange, and personal computer systems. SNA defines a set of proprietary communication protocols and message formats for the exchange and management of data on IBM host networks. Figure 40: OSI an SNA Comparision Page 36 http://www. psexam. com Contribution of Suresh Khanal for PS Exam SNA can be used for the following types of tasks: ? Terminal access to mainframe and midrange computer applications. File transfer of data between computer systems. Printing of mainframe and midrange data on SNA printers.Program-to-program communications that allow applications to exchange data over the network. ? ? ? SNA can be implemented in a networking infrastructure that uses either a hierarchical or peer-to-peer model. Networking Model Explain Peer-to-Peer Networking Model. A networking model whe re each workstation has equivalent capabilities and responsibilities is known as peer-to-peer model. There is no central server in this network and computers join hands to share files, printers and Internet access. It is practical for workgroups of a dozen or less computers making it common environments, where each PC acts as an independent workstation that stores data on its own disk but which can share it with all other PCs on the network.Software for peer-to-peer network is included with most modern desktop operating systems such as Windows and Mac OS. Explain Client/Server Networking Model. A networking model where one or more powerful computers (servers) provide the different network services and all other user's computers (clients) access those services to perform user's tasks is known as client/server networking model. Client-server networking model became popular in the late 1980s and early 1990s as many http://www. psexam. com Page 37 Contribution of Suresh Khanal for PS Ex am applications were migrated from centralized minicomputers and mainframes to networks of persona computers.The design of applications for a distributed computing environment required that they effetely be divided into two parts: client (front end) and server (back end). The network model on which they were implemented mirrored this client-server model with a user's PC (the client) typically acting as the requesting machine and a more powerful server machine to which it was connected via either a LAN or a WAN acting as the supplying machine. It requires special networking operating system. It provides user level security and it is more expensive. Network and Internet Terminologies NICs Network interface cards, commonly referred to as NICs are used to connect a PC to a network.The NIC provides a physical connection between the networking medium and the computers' internal bus, and is responsible for facilitating an â€Å"access method† to the network. Most NICs are designed f or a particular type of network, protocol and media, although some can serve multiple networks. Figure 41: LAN NIC Card Page 38 http://www. psexam. com Contribution of Suresh Khanal for PS Exam Hubs/Repeaters Hubs/Repeaters are used to connect together two or more network segments of any media type. In larger design, signal quality begins to deteriorate as segment exceeds their maximum length. A hub provides the signal amplification required to allow a segment to be extended a greater distance. Passive hub simply forwards any data packets they receive over one port from one workstation to all their remaining ports.Active hubs, also sometimes referred to as â€Å"multiport repeaters†, regenerate the data bits in order to maintain a strong signal. Figure 42: Hub Bridges The bridge function is to connect separate homogeneous networks. Bridges map the Ethernet address of the nodes residing on each network segment and allow only necessary traffic to pass through the bridge. When a packet is received by the bridge, the bridge determines the destination and source segments. If the segments are different, then the packet is â€Å"forwarded† to the correct segment. Bridges are also called â€Å"store-and-forward† device because they look at the whole Ethernet packet before making filtering or forwarding decisions. ttp://www. psexam. com Page 39 Contribution of Suresh Khanal for PS Exam Figure 43: Bridge Router Routing achieved commercially popularity in the mid – 1980s – at a time when large-scale Internetworking began to replace the fairly simple, homogeneous environments. Routing is the act of moving information across an Internetwork from a source to a destination. It is often contrasted with bridging, which perform a similar function. Routers use information within each packet to route it from one LAN to another, and communicate with each other and share information that allows them to determine the best route through a complex ne twork of many LANs.Page 40 http://www. psexam. com Contribution of Suresh Khanal for PS Exam Figure 44: Router Switches LAN switches are an expansion of the concept in LAN bridging, which controls data flow, handles transmission errors, provides physical addressing, and manages access to the physical medium. Switches provide these functions by using various link-layer protocols. LAN switches can link four, six, ten or more networks together. A storeand-forward switch, on the other hand, accepts and analyses the entire packet before forwarding it to its destination. Figure 45: Switch http://www. psexam. com Page 41 Contribution of Suresh Khanal for PS Exam TransceiversTransceivers are used to connect nodes to the various Ethernet media. Most computers and network interface cards contain a builtin 10BaseT or 10Base2 transceiver, allowing them to be connected directly to Ethernet without requiring an external transceiver. Many Ethernet devices provide an AUI connector to allow the user to connect to any media type via an external transceiver. Figure 46: Transceiver Gateway A Gateway is a device such as a mini or microcomputer capable of operating on a stand alone basis but which also provides connection for communication with the other computers and access to shared resources. Page 42 http://www. psexam. comContribution of Suresh Khanal for PS Exam Figure 47: Gateway PC Proxy Serer Also called a proxy or application level gateway. It is an application that breaks the connection between sender and receiver. Thus, it helps us to prevent hacker from obtaining Internet address and detail of a private network. Firewall Firewall is a method for keeping a network secure. It is mostly used in giving users access to the Internet in a secure fashion as well as to separate a company's public web server from its internal network. Node A node is a hardware device or group of devices or station in a network that link one or more other unit to the network. Wireless NetworkThe m ost and latest wireless LANs use electromagnetic airwaves either infrared or radio frequency to communicate information from one point to another without relaying on a physical connection. Radio waves are often referred to as radio carriers because they simply perform the function of delivering energy to a remote receiver. The http://www. psexam. com Page 43 Contribution of Suresh Khanal for PS Exam data being transmitted is superimposed on the radio carrier so that it can be accurately extracted at the receiving end. Multiple radio carriers can exist in the same space at the same time without interfering with each other if the radio waves are transmitted on different radio frequencies. Figure 48: Nework with Wireless StationsIn a typical WLAN configuration, a transmitter/receiver (transceiver) device, called an Access Point (AP), connects to the wired network from a fixed location using standard Ethernet cable. The Access Point receives, buffers, and transmits data between the WLAN and the Page 44 http://www. psexam. com Contribution of Suresh Khanal for PS Exam wired network infrastructures. A single Access Point can support a small group of users and can function within a range of less than one hundred to several hundred feet. The Access Point (or the antenna attached to the Access Point) is usually mounted high but may be mounted essentially anywhere that is practical as long as the desired radio coverage is obtained.The wireless network, printers or other peripherals can be shared through a connected PC. The devices then communicate using a set of reserved high-frequency radio waves. An Access Point device connects to a DSL or cable modem and enables high-rate (broadband) Internet access for the entire network. Internet Internet is the large worldwide network of computes that facilitates data communication services, file transfer, electronic mail, World Wide Web and newsgroup with common protocols. WWW Figure 49: Tim Berners Lee http://www. psexam. com Pa ge 45 Contribution of Suresh Khanal for PS Exam The WWW is the brainchild of Tim Berners Lee a CERN who had the idea of creating an electronic web of research information.The web is currently the fastest growing Internet information system, with new resources being added regularly. The web relies on a set of protocols, conventions and software to operate. The web is a distributed system of delivering linked documents over the Internet. It is called a distributed system because information can reside on different computers around the world. Yet be easily linked together using hypertext. The web uses hypertext to create links from together using hypertext. The web uses hyperte3xt to create links from one resource to another. A hypertext link is usually displayed by highlighted and underlined text on the page. A hypertext link or hyperlink can also be graphic that acts as a button linking to another resource. IRCInternet Relay Chat (IRC) is a system for sending public and private messa ge to other users in â€Å"real time† – that is, your message appears on the recipient's screen as soon as you type it. Figure 50: Yahoo Chat Page 46 http://www. psexam. com Contribution of Suresh Khanal for PS Exam CU-SeeMe CU-SeeMe is a video conferencing system that allows users to send and receive sound and pictures simultaneously over the Internet. Figure 51: CU SeeMe http://www. psexam. com Page 47 Contribution of Suresh Khanal for PS Exam Figure 52: CU SeeMe Conferencing Telnet It is a protocol or set of rules that enables a computer to connect another computer in network. It is also known as a remote login. The telnet operates on client-server principle. Figure 53: Telnet Screen Page 48 http://www. psexam. comContribution of Suresh Khanal for PS Exam Gopher The ghoper is a protocol designed to search, retrieve and display documents from remote sites on the Internet. The Ghoper was created as a piece of software to utilize some of the services that were becoming available on the Internet. HTML HTML stands for Hyper Text Markup Language. It is a standard coding language used to create all web documents (pages). http://www. psexam. com Page 49 Contribution of Suresh Khanal for PS Exam Browsers Figure 54: Different Browsers Logo A browser is the Internet Client software that acts as an interface between the user and the inner-workings of the Internet, specifically the WWW.We can find graphical web browser that displays multimedia content of text, graphics, audio and video, and text web Page 50 http://www. psexam. com Contribution of Suresh Khanal for PS Exam browser that displays only text. Internet Explorer, Netscape, Firefox are graphical web browser and Lynx is a well known text browser. Figure 55: Mozilla Firefox Figure 56: Netscape Navigator http://www. psexam. com Page 51 Contribution of Suresh Khanal for PS Exam Figure 57: Internet Explorer Figure 58: Google Chrome Page 52 http://www. psexam. com Contribution of Suresh Khanal for PS Ex am Dialup Connection Dialup connection is a means of connecting user to another computer (ISP) or a network such as the Internet with a modem equipped computer. IP AddressIP Address is an identifier for particular machine on a particular network. It is part of scheme to identify computers on the Internet. IP addresses are a set of numbers separated with periods. Figure 59: IP Address Structure Figure 60: IP Address and Subnet Mask http://www. psexam. com Page 53 Contribution of Suresh Khanal for PS Exam Domain Name A domain name is a way to identify and locate computers connected to the Internet. This is a text name of a computer in network or Internet. Domain names are converted to IP Addresses to locate computers and resources. URL URL stands for Uniform Resource Locator that identifies a particular Internet resource.URL help the user to locate web page, gopher service, library catalog and image or text file locations. URLs are the standard addressing system of the www. A complete URL provides the web client with all the information it needs to contact a server and make a request for information. URLs are divided into three basic parts: Example: http://www. psexam. com/download. htm a. Protocol (http://) – The information appearing before the colon in any URL indicates the type of information server or protocol. For example http:// indicates that the server to be connected is a www server. b. Domain name (www. psexam. com) – The second piece of information is the address of the server. In this example psexam. om is the name of the machine at PS Exam in world wide web. c. Resource name (download. htm) – The third piece of information is the path to the actual document requested. In this example the URL indicates that the document in the system directory and is named download. htm. Web Browsing or Surfing Browsing or Surfing is the process of visiting different web sites on the Internet hosted by various organizations. Page 54 http://www. psexam. com Contribution of Suresh Khanal for PS Exam Search Engine The search engine is an interactive tool to help people locate information via the www and it is interface between the user and underlying database.The most popular search engines are Alta Vista Exite, Lycos, Yahoo! , Google, Ask etc. Figure 61: Yahoo, Ask, MSN, Google Search Engines http://www. psexam. com Page 55 Contribution of Suresh Khanal for PS Exam Figure 62: Alta Vista Search Engine Figure 63: Lycos Page 56 http://www. psexam. com Contribution of Suresh Khanal for PS Exam Meta Search Engine A web meta searcher is a tool that helps users to locate information available via the World Wide Web. Web meta-serchers provide a single interface that enables users to search many different search engines, indexes and databases simultaneously. Some meta search engines are Albany. net, Clnet (search. om), Cyberland, Eureaka! , Savvysearch and so on. Figure 64: Meta Search Engine Internet Access We can access to the Inte rnet in one of two basic ways, dialing into an Internet Service Provider's (ISP) computer or with a direct connection to an ISP. Connecting to ISP by dialing their hunting number (phone number) is called Dial-up connection. We require a username, password and ISP's hunting number to configure Dial up Connection. http://www. psexam. com Page 57 Contribution of Suresh Khanal for PS Exam Extranet An Extranet is a type of Intranet (Internal TCP/IP Network) that has been selectively opened to a firm's suppliers, customers. IntranetAn intranet can be defined as a network connecting an affiliated set of clients using standard internet protocols, esp. TCP/IP and HTTP or as an IP-based network of nodes behind a firewall, or behind several firewall connected by secure, possibly virtual, networks. Web Index A web index is designed to assist users in locating information on the World Wide Web. Web indexes are also referred to as catalogs or directories. A web index collects and organizes resour ces available via the www. Some of the web indexes are Yahoo! , Megallan, Apollo etc. Figure 65: Web Index Page 58 http://www. psexam. com Contribution of Suresh Khanal for PS Exam HypertextThe hypertext allows for the integration of text, graphics, audio and video on a web pate. This can make it very easy to browse and very exciting to view. A web page may have colorful graphics integrated with textual information. Links on a web page may take you to other web pages, recorded sonds, or digital video clips. A single click on any hyperlink allows you to follow the link to the specified resource. Figure 66: Hypertext and Hyper Link Email Electronic Mail (Email) is one of the most popular & powerful communication tools on the Internet. It is an efficient and effective means of network communication. Email allows you to communicate with people across the globe via electronic media (computer). Email addressAn Email Address identifies a person and the computer for the purpose of exchangin g electronic mail message. Example: [email  protected] com http://www. psexam. com Page 59 Contribution of Suresh Khanal for PS Exam The email address contains three parts: a. Username – The admin in example. b. Domain name of organization – The psexam in example c. Top Level Domain – The com in example Signature Figure 67: Email Client Interface Inbox It is an element of Email Application which collects all incoming mails. Outbox It is an element of Email Application which collects all outgoing mails, if it is created and sent in offline. Page 60 http://www. psexam. com Contribution of Suresh Khanal for PS Exam TrashThis is an element of Email Application that holds all the deleted emails. Figure 68: New Email Message CC CC stands for Courtesy copy or Carbon Copy. It is an element of Email used to specify the additional recipients when the mail sent needs to be acknowledged to them. http://www. psexam. com Page 61 Contribution of Suresh Khanal for PS Exam BCC BCC stands for Blank Carbon Copy. It is similar to CC but the address of other receivers will not be shown to the receiver. Reply A reply is the response of an email you receive. After you read a mail and need to reply it you can use this feature. Forward A mail received can be sent to be other recipients known as forwarding. AttachmentsThe documents created in other applications such as word, excel can be sent along with the email message. These documents that are sent with email is known as attachment. Documents, audio/video files, Zip files etc. can be sent as attachment along with email message. Bounced When a mail sent can't reach to destination and returns back, this is known as bounced. This happens often when the recipient's address is wrong or the server at the recipient's end is down or recipient's inbox is full. Netiquette It is essential for all users on the internet to recognize that they are responsible for their own individual actions while using the net. Netiquette is simply the use of common courtesy and polite behavior while using the net. EmoticonsThe convention of expressing feeling or a joke in symbolic form by user in Email or Chatting for example 🙂 for smiling 😉 for winking 🙠 for frowning etc are emoticons. Page 62 http://www. psexam. com Contribution of Suresh Khanal for PS Exam Figure 69: Emoticons http://www. psexam. com Page 63 Contribution of Suresh Khanal for PS Exam Wish you best of luck! Page 64 http://www. psexam. com Contribution of Suresh Khanal for PS Exam Visit New PS Exam Better Interface and greater possibility to share and interact. Don’t forget to subscribe! http://new. psexam. com ICT Trends – A Blog about blogging Trace the path of Suresh Khanal in blogging, promoting and monetize blogs. http://www. icttrends. com http://www. psexam. com Page 65